The Assassination of Beatles Legend John Lennon

John Lennon — a founding member of the Beatles, and one of the most beloved and famous music legends of all time — died on December 8, 1980, after being shot four times by a crazed fan in the carriageway of his New York City apartment building. Many of the events that led to his tragic and untimely death remain unclear and decades after his murder, people still struggle to understand what motivated his killer, 25-year-old Mark David Chapman, to pull the trigger on that fateful night.   Lennon in the 1970s The Beatles were arguably the most successful and influential group of the 1960s, perhaps of all time. Nevertheless, after spending a decade at the top of the charts, producing hit after hit, the band called it quits in 1970, and all four of its members – John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr -- moved on to launch solo careers. Throughout the early ‘70s, Lennon recorded several albums and produced hits like the instant classic Imagine. He had moved permanently to New York City with his wife Yoko Ono and taken up residence at the Dakota, a fancy, old apartment building located at the northwest corner of 72nd Street and Central Park West. The Dakota was known for housing many celebrities. By the mid-1970s, however, Lennon had given up music. And though he claimed he did so to become a stay-at-home dad to his newborn son, Sean, many of his fans, as well as the media, speculated the singer might have sunk into a creative slump. Several articles published during this period painted the former Beatle as a recluse and a has-been, who seemed more interested in managing his millions and holing up in his decadent New York apartment than in writing songs. One of these articles, published in Esquire in 1980, would prompt a pudgy, disturbed young man from Hawaii, to travel to New York City and commit murder. Mark David Chapman: From Drugs to Jesus Mark David Chapman was born in Fort Worth, Texas on May 10, 1955, but lived in Decatur, Georgia from the age of seven. Mark’s dad, David Chapman, was in the Air Force, and his mom, Diane Chapman, was a nurse. A sister was born seven years after Mark. From the outside, the Chapmans looked like a typical American family; however, inside, there was trouble. Mark’s dad, David, was an emotionally distant man, not showing his emotions even to his son.   Worse, David would often hit Diane. Mark could often hear his mom screaming, but was unable to stop his dad.   In school, Mark, who was a bit pudgy and not good at sports, was picked on and called names. All these feelings of helplessness led to Mark having strange fantasies, starting very early on in his childhood. By the age of 10, he was imagining and interacting with an entire civilization of tiny people he believed lived inside the walls of his bedroom. He would have imaginary interactions with these little people and later came to see them as his subjects and himself as their king. This fantasy continued until Chapman was 25, the same year he gunned down John Lennon. Chapman managed to keep such strange tendencies to himself, however, and seemed like a normal youngster to those who knew him. Like many who grew up in the 1960s, Chapman was swept up in the spirit of the times and by age 14, was even using heavy drugs like LSD on a regular basis. At age 17, however, Chapman suddenly proclaimed himself a born-again Christian. He renounced drugs and the hippie lifestyle and began attending prayer meetings and going to religious retreats.   Many of his friends at the time claimed the change came so suddenly they saw it as a type of personality split.    Soon after, Chapman became a counselor at the YMCA—a job he relished with fervent devotion—and would remain there into his twenties. He was highly popular with the kids in his care; he dreamed of becoming a YMCA director and working abroad as a Christian missionary. Problems Despite his successes, Chapman was undisciplined and lacking in ambition. He briefly attended community college in Decatur but soon dropped out due to the pressures of academic work. He subsequently traveled to Beirut, Lebanon as a YMCA counselor, only to be forced to leave when war broke out in that country. And after a brief stint at a camp for Vietnamese refugees in Arkansas, Chapman decided to give school another try. In 1976, Chapman enrolled at a religious college under the encouragement of his girlfriend, Jessica Blankenship, who was very devout and whom he had known since the second grade. However, he lasted only one semester before dropping out once more. Chapman’s failures at school caused his personality to undergo yet another drastic change. He began to question his purpose in life and his devotion to his faith.   His changing moods also put a strain on his relationship with Jessica  and they broke up soon after. Chapman became increasingly despondent about these events in his life. He saw himself as a failure at everything he tried and frequently spoke of suicide. His friends were concerned for him, but could never have anticipated what this shift in Chapman’s temperament portended. Down a Dark Path Chapman was looking for a change and at the encouragement of his friend Dana Reeves—an aspiring policeman—decided to take shooting lessons and obtain a license to carry firearms. Soon after, Reeves managed to find Chapman a job as a security guard. But Chapman’s dark moods continued. He decided he needed to change his surroundings and moved to Hawaii in 1977, where he did attempt suicide but failed, ending up at a psychiatric facility. After two weeks as an outpatient there, he obtained a job in the hospital’s print shop and even volunteered on occasion in the psych ward. On a whim, Chapman decided to take a trip around the world. He fell in love with Gloria Abe, the travel agent who helped book his round-the-world trip. The two frequently corresponded through letters and upon returning to Hawaii, Chapman asked Abe to become his wife. The couple married in the summer of 1979. Although Chapman’s life seemed to be improving, his downward spiral continued and his increasingly erratic behavior concerned his new wife. Abe claimed Chapman began drinking heavily, was abusive towards her and would frequently make threatening phone calls to complete strangers. His temper was short and he was prone to violent outbursts and would engage in screaming matches with his coworkers. Abe also noticed Chapman became increasingly obsessed with JD Salinger’s seminal 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye. The Catcher in the Rye It is unclear when exactly Chapman discovered Salinger’s novel, The Catcher in the Rye, but one thing is for certain, by the late ‘70s it was beginning to have a profound effect on him. He identified deeply with the book’s protagonist, Holden Caulfield, an adolescent who railed against the seeming phoniness of the adults around him. In the book, Caulfield identified with children and saw himself as their savior from adulthood. Chapman came to see himself as a real-life Holden Caulfield. He even told his wife he wanted to change his name to Holden Caulfield and would rage about the phoniness of people and of celebrities in particular. Hatred of John Lennon In October of 1980, Esquire magazine published a profile on John Lennon, which portrayed the former Beatle as a drug-addled millionaire recluse who had lost touch with his fans and his music. Chapman read the article with increasing anger and came to see Lennon as the ultimate hypocrite and a â€Å"phony† of the very type described in Salinger’s novel. He began reading everything he could about John Lennon, even making tapes of Beatles’ songs, which he would play over and over for his wife, changing the tapes’ speed and direction. He would listen to them while sitting nude in the dark, chanting, â€Å"John Lennon, I’m going to kill you, you phony bastard!† When Chapman discovered Lennon was planning to release a new album—his first in five years—his mind was made up. He would fly to New York City and shoot the singer. Preparing for the Assassination Chapman quit his job and bought a .38-caliber revolver from a gun shop in Honolulu. He then bought a one-way ticket to New York, told his wife goodbye, and departed, arriving in New York City on October 30, 1980. Chapman checked into the Waldorf Astoria, the same hotel Holden Caulfield stayed at in The Catcher in the Rye, and set about seeing some sights. He frequently stopped at the Dakota to ask the doormen there about John Lennon’s whereabouts, without luck. The employees at the Dakota were used to fans asking such questions and generally refused to divulge any information about the various celebrities who resided in the building. Chapman had brought his revolver to New York but figured he would buy bullets once he arrived. He now learned only residents of the city could legally purchase bullets there. Chapman thus flew down to his former home in Georgia for the weekend, where his old buddy Dana Reeves—by now a sheriff’s deputy—could help him procure what he needed.    Chapman told Reeves he had been staying in New York, was concerned for his safety, and needed five hollow-nosed bullets, known for causing immense damage to their target. Now armed with gun and bullets, Chapman returned to New York; however, after all this time, Chapman’s resolve had diminished. He later claimed that he had a type of religious experience that convinced him what he was planning was wrong. He called his wife and told her, for the first time, what he had planned to do. Gloria Abe was frightened by Chapman’s confession. However, she did not call the police but simply implored her husband to return home to Hawaii. He did so on Nov. 12. Chapman’s change of heart did not last long. His strange behavior continued and on Dec. 5, 1980, he once again departed for New York. This time, he would not be back. Second Trip to New York Upon his second trip to New York, Chapman checked into a local YMCA, because it was cheaper than a regular hotel room. However, he was not comfortable there and checked into the Sheraton Hotel on December 7. He made daily trips to the Dakota building, where he befriended several other John Lennon fans, as well as the building’s doorman, Jose Perdomo, whom he would pepper with questions about Lennon’s whereabouts. At the Dakota, Chapman also befriended an amateur photographer from New Jersey named Paul Goresh, who was a regular at the building and well known to the Lennons. Goresh chatted with Chapman and would later comment how little Chapman seemed to know about John Lennon and the Beatles, considering he had claimed to be such an avid fan. Chapman would visit the Dakota regularly over the next two days, hoping each time to run into Lennon and commit his crime. Dec. 8, 1980 On the morning of Dec. 8, Chapman dressed warmly. Before leaving his room he carefully arranged some of his most treasured belongings on a table. Among these items was a copy of the New Testament in which he had written the name â€Å"Holden Caulfield† as well as the name â€Å"Lennon† after the words â€Å"Gospel According to John.†Ã‚   He arranged the items for maximum effect, expecting the police to come looking through his room after his arrest. After leaving the hotel, he bought a fresh copy of The Catcher in the Rye and wrote the words â€Å"This is my statement† on its title page. Chapman’s plan had been to say nothing to police after the shooting, but to simply hand them a copy of the book by way of explaining his actions. Carrying the book and a copy of Lennon’s latest album Double Fantasy, Chapman then made his way to the Dakota where he stood chatting with Paul Goresh. At one point, a Lennon associate, Helen Seaman, arrived with Lennon’s five-year-old son Sean in tow. Goresh introduced Chapman to them as a fan who had come all the way from Hawaii. Chapman seemed elated and gushed about how cute the boy was. John Lennon, meanwhile, was having a busy day inside the Dakota. After posing with Yoko Ono for famous photographer Annie Leibovitz, Lennon got a haircut and gave his last ever interview, which was to Dave Sholin, a DJ from San Francisco. By 5 p.m. Lennon realized he was running late and needed to get over to the recording studio. Sholin offered the Lennons a ride in his limo since their own car had not yet arrived. Upon exiting the Dakota, Lennon was met by Paul Goresh, who introduced him to Chapman. Chapman handed over his copy of Double Fantasy for Lennon to sign. The star took the album, scribbled his signature, and handed it back.   The moment was captured by Paul Goresh and the resulting photograph—one of the last ever taken of John Lennon—shows a profile of the Beatle as he signs Chapman’s album, with the killer’s shadowy, deadpan face looming in the background. With that, Lennon entered the limo and headed for the studio. It is unclear why Chapman did not take that opportunity to kill John Lennon. He later recalled he was waging an inner battle. However, his obsession with killing Lennon did not abate. Shooting John Lennon Despite Chapman’s inner misgivings, the urge to shoot the singer was too overwhelming.   Chapman remained at the Dakota well after Lennon and most of the fans had left, waiting for the Beatle to return.    The limo carrying Lennon and Yoko Ono arrived back at the Dakota around 10:50 p.m. Yoko exited the vehicle first, followed by John. Chapman greeted Ono with a simple â€Å"Hello† as she passed. As Lennon passed him, Chapman heard a voice inside his head urging him on: â€Å"Do it! Do it! Do it!† Chapman stepped into the carriageway of the Dakota, dropped to his knees, and fired two shots into John Lennon’s back. Lennon reeled. Chapman then pulled the trigger three more times. Two of those bullets landed in Lennon’s shoulder. The third went astray. Lennon managed to run into the Dakota’s lobby and clamber up the few steps leading to the building’s office, where he finally collapsed. Yoko Ono followed Lennon inside, screaming he’d been shot. The Dakota’s night man thought it was all a joke until he saw the blood pouring from Lennon’s mouth and chest. The night man promptly called 911 and covered Lennon with his uniform jacket. John Lennon Dies When the police arrived, they found Chapman sitting beneath the gate’s lantern calmly reading Catcher in the Rye. The killer made no attempt to escape and repeatedly apologized to the officers for the trouble he had caused. They promptly handcuffed Chapman and placed him in a nearby patrol car. The officers did not know the victim was the famous John Lennon. They simply determined his wounds were too serious to wait for an ambulance. They placed Lennon in the backseat of one of their patrol cars and drove him to the emergency room at Roosevelt Hospital. Lennon was still alive but barely able to respond to the officers’ questions. The hospital was made aware of Lennon’s arrival and had a trauma team at the ready. They worked diligently to save Lennon’s life, but to no avail. Two of the bullets had pierced his lungs, while a third had hit his shoulder and then ricocheted inside his chest where it had damaged the aorta and cut his windpipe. John Lennon died at 11:07 pm on the night of December 8, due to massive internal hemorrhaging. Aftermath The news of Lennon’s death broke during ABC’s televised Monday night football game when sportscaster Howard Cosell announced the tragedy in the middle of a play. Soon after, fans from all over the city arrived at the Dakota, where they held vigil for the slain singer. As the news spread around the world, the public was shocked. It seemed a brutal, bloody end to the ‘60s. Mark David Chapman’s trial was short, as he had pled guilty to second-degree murder, claiming God had told him to do so.  When asked at his sentencing if he wanted to make a final statement, Chapman stood up and read a passage from Catcher in the Rye. The judge sentenced him to 20-years-to-life and Chapman remains imprisoned to this day, having lost several appeals for his parole.

Graduation Speech Honors And Integrity Statement

BLOOD SPEAKS ITSELF A Genogram Paper Honors and Integrity Statement I certify that this Genogram Paper is my own written work and that I have not copied from any other student, text or source in a manner that would violate the rules of plagiarism outlined by Nursing 7 and San Joaquin Delta College. I realize that a violation of the rules of plagiarism will result in a course failure and possible dismissal from the college. STUDENT NURSE Family â€Å"Family like branches on a tree, we all grow in different directions, yet our roots remain as one.† ~ Anonymous A family is a word which is defined by one’s personal experiences and emotions. Family means bliss for one and dolor for another person. Socially, a family is defined by reciprocal relationships in which persons are committed to one another (Halter, 2014). This paper outlines the analysis of four generations of Batths’ and Boparais’ families and their relationships, health conditions, traditions, and structures based on information gathered in an interview with Mandeep Batth, a third generation member of both families. She defined family as everything for her and isn’t about blood relations one has. This fascinatingShow MoreRelatedSchool District Adminstration4672 Words   |  19 PagesAltamirano Academic Counselor- Travis Cole Athletic Director- Mike Nelson Health Fitness- Matt Tarbutton Counselor- Emilio Luna IT- John Kenna Mascot- Sharks School Colors- Navy Blue and White Motto- Taking a Bite out of Education! Mission Statement: To provide all learners with the leadership and knowledge of today. To prepare learners for the rigors of life, today, tomorrow, and the future. 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Abraham Lincoln Essay 2 Free Essays

string(102) " of support both the free white citizens of the district and the abolitionists it failed \(biography\." Michael Hutsell Professor Hershenberg American Government I – 2301 Abraham Lincoln Throughout the long history of the United States there have been many hardworking, dedicated politicians that made our country strong and resilient. During the time of the greatest peril to our country one stood out more than any other. This man was Abraham Lincoln, one of the most resilient and pivotal leaders we have known. We will write a custom essay sample on Abraham Lincoln Essay 2 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Abraham Lincoln came from humble origins in the backwoods of Kentucky. He was born on February 12, 1809 in a one room log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm, in southeast Hardin county Kentucky. His father (Thomas Lincoln) was a poverty stricken frontiersman after losing his farm, which along with his wife (Nancy Hanks Lincoln) and other children had to work hard everyday for the necessities of life. Lincoln was no stranger to hard work; he split logs plowed his families land and used his carpentry skills around the farm. He did prefer reading and learning to the hard work which caused a strained relationship between he and his father. He only received 18 months of formal education and was largely self educated. In 1816 Lincoln’s father lost his farm and was forced to move to Perry County, Indiana. This area of the country near the Ohio River was very remote and rugged. Their first winter at the new homestead was very harsh but they were able to survive. Unfortunately that summer Lincoln’s mother died from a deadly disease known as â€Å"milk sickness† and left his father with the children to raise alone(Lincoln research project). After the death of his mother the family fell apart and the most of the day to day work was left to Lincoln and his sister. In the winter of 1819 Lincoln’s father went back to Kentucky and found a new wife Sarah Bush Johnson who was a widow with three children (notable biographies. om). His new mother was a very positive light placed in his life. She was very affectionate and treated both sets of children the same as if she borne them all. She was especially fond of Abraham and he referred to her as his â€Å"Angel Mother† (biography. com). In 1830, after further financial misfortune, Lincoln’s father moved his famil y to Coles County Illinois, but Lincoln did not go with them deciding to head out on his own to New Salem. (Notablebiographies. com). At New Salem Lincoln was placed in charge of a mill and a store where he became very popular through his unique story telling. Shortly thereafter the New Salem debating society asked him to join where he became a very passionate and persuasive speaker (notable biographies. com). At this time the â€Å"black hawk war† which was a Native American uprising occurred. Lincoln decided to volunteer in New Salem and was elected Captain of his company. He saw little action during the short war and afterwards he stated that â€Å"he had seen no live, fighting Indians during the war but had a good many bloody struggles with the mosquitoes† (biography. com). During this time Lincoln’s store eventually folded leaving him deeply in debt. He then worked as a rail splitter, land surveyor, and a postmaster all of which fell through increasing his dept even more. He did eventually pay them off thus earning the nickname â€Å"Honest Abe†. After Lincoln’s service in Black Hawk war ended, he decided to run as a candidate for the Illinois legislature. Despite his speaking talents he was not elected but did receive 277 of 300 votes cast in his home precinct in New Salem (notablebiographies. com). Lincoln was not deterred from his goal of becoming a member of the Illinois legislature, and in 1834 was elected. At this time John Todd Stuart, the leader of the Whig party, noticed Lincoln’s skill during his campaign. Stuart became Lincoln’s mentor in the state legislature taking him under his wing and pushed him to begin his law studies. Lincoln started practicing law in 1836 and served 4 terms in the state legislature where he became a Whig leader. In 1837 Lincoln moved to Illinois new capital Springfield. There he joined John Stuart’s law firm as a partner and continued his political career (notablebiographies. com) During this time he became the most successful lawyer in the state of Illinois earning 1,200 to 1,500 annually (biography. om) This compared to 1,200 for the governor and 750 for circuit judges (biography. com). His practice was based in Springfield but he would also make the rounds with the circuit court, where at first would earn only small fees for petty cases. After the railroads arrived Lincoln successfully defended the Illinois Central Railroad in many notable lawsuits where he earned sizeable legal fees (biography. com). During his tenure in the state legislature he espoused his opposition to slavery but would not go so far as to call himself and abolitionist. During the mid 1830s Lincoln met and courted Ann Rutledge but this ended in tragedy with her untimely death in 1835. In 1836 Lincoln pursued halfhearted Mary Owens and proposed, but she turned down his proposal. Later he met and courted Mary Todd who belonged to a very distinguished Kentucky family and was part of Springfield’s social aristocracy. Many of her family members and friends disliked their relationship which created a strain during the courtship. In 1840 they became engaged but the tension created between he and her social standing created much doubt in his mind concerning the marriage. On January 1, 1841 the engagement was ended and Lincoln fell into a deep depression. Later they worked out the issues related to their engagement and married on November 4, 1842. Lincoln and his wife had four children with only the eldest Thomas Lincoln living to adulthood. In 1846 Lincoln was elected to the U. S. Congress serving a single term in the Whig party. He proposed a bill for the emancipation of slaves in the District of Columbia (gradual and compensated), but due to the lack of support both the free white citizens of the district and the abolitionists it failed (biography. You read "Abraham Lincoln Essay 2" in category "Essay examples" om). He also was outspoken in his criticism of the Mexican War, leading many inquiries challenging the current president James K. Polk real reasons for the war (biography. com). Due to his criticisms he lost his base of support in his own congressional district and was not reelected to the U. S. Congress. After he failed in his second congre ssional bid he was very frustrated with politics and took a five year hiatus until a new regional issue emerged in 1854. Lincoln’s political rival from Illinois, Stephen A. Douglas created a bill for opening all the land of the Louisiana Purchase to slavery. This act (Kansas and Nebraska Act) allowed the settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide if slavery should be permitted in their region. This created strenuous opposition in Illinois and eventually led to the disintegration of Lincoln’s Whig party and gave rise to the Republican Party. When Lincoln heard the Republicans where trying to attract Stephen Douglas he opposed it and decided to join the Republican party and challenge Douglas’s leadership within the state of Illinois Republican party (biography. om). Lincoln ran against Douglas for the Senate in 1858 and a famous series of debates between the two ensued throughout Illinois. During the debates Lincoln’s views on slavery emerged insisting Congress must exclude slavery from its territories. Lincoln stated in one of the debates that â€Å"A house divided against it cannot stand. I believe the government cannot endure perma nently half slave and half free†. On the other hand he did not espouse equality for the races nor did he endorse citizenship for African Americans. He stated to a crowd in Charleston Illinois that â€Å"I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors neither of blacks, nor of qualifying them to hold office†¦. † (biography. com) His inconsistencies regarding slavery led to his eventual defeat by Douglas. Through these debates Lincoln gained national recognition by the debates being published and he began to be considered as a presidential candidate. On May 18, 1860, Lincoln received the presidential nomination at the Republican National Convention in Chicago. Lincoln’s full attention was then turned toward creating unity in the Republican Party. The Democrats on the other hand were much divided and Lincoln won the presidential election on November 6, 1860 by a decisive majority in the Electoral College. This created a serious crisis within the country due to South Carolina’s withdrawal from the Union. Several compromises were considered to halt the secession movement but all were unsuccessful in the end due to Lincoln’s opposition to any compromise regarding the free-soil position of the Republican Party (biography. com). After the failure to broker a compromise between the slavery and free soil states six more states seceded and created the Confederate States of America. Shortly after the secession, the issue of holding Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor was the first test of Lincoln’s presidency. South Carolina claimed the fort for the Confederacy and threatened to take it by force if needed. Lincoln neither wanted to provoke war or show any signs of weakness towards the Confederacy. He decided to re-supply the besieged fort but before he could do this the Confederates attacked thus starting the Civil War. After this attack Lincoln decided the Confederacy needed to be actively fought through a war not through a blockade (biography. com). This influenced his decision to send union troops to advance on Virginia at Bull Run resulting in a rout for the Union forces on July 21, 1861. After this setback at Bull Run, Lincoln created his military policy. He felt there should be several fronts which Union troops would use their superior manpower to advance simultaneously. He also used the superior union navy to create a naval blockade of all southern ports to strangle the Confederacy. At first for nearly two years the Union armies lacked effective command through indecisive generals and lacking unity of command. They consistently could not grasp Lincoln’s concept of total multi-pronged attacks. Lincoln, finally through the promotion of Ulysses S. Grant to overall command of Union forces, was able to put into effect his concept of a large, coordinated offensive to topple the Confederacy. This multi-front strategy was a success and on April 14, 1865 General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Grant. Only a few hours after Lee Surrendered to Grant Lincoln attended the play Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theatre. During the play John Wilkes Booth entered the state box where Lincoln was watching the play. At 10:15 P. M. , he shot Lincoln in the back of the head mortally wounding him. Lincoln was carried to the Petersen House across the street where at 7:22 A. M. April 15, 1865 he passed away (biography. com). He was not able to see the end to hostilities of the Civil War which he worked tirelessly to preserve the Union and plant the seeds that led to the end of slavery in the United States. I chose Abraham Lincoln because he was able to preserve our nation through his expert leadership, moral character and through the use of his superior speaking abilities. He exemplified this through several key speeches just prior and during the Civil War. His effective vision energized people, created meaning for followers, established a standard of excellence and bridged the gap between the present and the future (Johnson p. 85). The first speech occurred during his first inaugural address to the nation. In his inaugural address, Lincoln was faced with the difficult problem of building credibility with a relatively hostile audience. The Southern states were beginning to secede from the Union, only two federal forts were left standing in the South (these were under siege) and he had to be under armed guard because of death threats (Braden p. 68). To counter this explosive atmosphere Lincoln remained very calm and up to the actual address remained silent because he didn’t want to make any comments that might unnecessarily make the South explode in anger. On March 4, 1861, Lincoln began his address. His strategy for the address was to increase his credibility by appearing thoughtful, law-abiding, and by keeping strictly to his prepared manuscript. Lincoln directed his address mainly to the Southerners and to the border states that could either join the Union or the Confederacy. He first wanted to make it clear to the South that he did not want to interfere with the institution of slavery or the Fugitive Slave Act (Braden p. 74). Lincoln also wanted to make it clear that the Union of states cannot be separated into a separate North and South. Another goal Lincoln proposed was peaceful reconciliation. He would leave the Southern people alone if they would elect loyalists to office and uphold the constitution of the United States. In return he would not use force to enact this process. In his inaugural address Lincoln was successful at projecting and building his credibility as president. He exhibited trustworthiness by talking in a clear and simple way and by being very honest regarding his goals and views. The speeches outcome enabled his followers to share in his views and fight to preserve the Union. He also tried to alleviate the fears of the Southerners and Border States by diminishing his abolitionist persona and lessening the probability of an invasion of the South. Lincoln’s dynamic and unifying speaking skill was demonstrated with his Gettysburg address. The Gettysburg address was given by Lincoln after the terrible battle had taken place and the area was to be consecrated as a national cemetery on November 19, 1863. During this speech Lincoln wanted to commemorate the men who died in the battle by giving a short but eloquent speech. He also had a larger purpose, he wanted to make a statement that would make the citizens from both the North and the South start to think about peace. He also wanted to rekindle the Union’s patriotic resolve to win the war and preserve the Union. The Gettysburg address as presented by Lincoln: â€Å"Fourscore and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great Civil War, testing whether that nation-or any nation, so conceived and so dedicated – can long endure. We are now on a great battlefield of that war. We are met to dedicate a portion of it as the final resting-place of those who have given their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this, but, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will very little note nor long remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated, here, to the unfinished work that they have thus far so noble carried on. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth† (Barton p. 1-82). The speeches eloquence and shortness took the audience by surprise and they were very affected by its delivery. Lincoln knew this was a pivotal opportunity and he also realized the audience was motivated to be there to remember the soldiers who died in the battle. He played on their strong emotions by prompting them to not let these soldiers die in vain, but to let their memory give them renewed strengt h to win the war. His most important aim was to strengthen the resolves of the Unionists to continue the struggle and to save the United States. He also masterfully empowered his audience by handing his vision to them by telling them to honor the dead soldiers by becoming resolved to win the war no matter what. I feel through these two compelling speeches Lincoln was able to bring the country together and save the citizens from the depths of the Civil War. Through these speeches Lincoln demonstrated the power of the spoken word. Without Lincoln’s genius and abilities the Civil War could have been lost and the world today would be a vastly different place. Works Cited Braden, Waldo. Abraham Lincoln: Public Speaker. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. Johnson, Craig, Hackman, Michael. Leadership: A Communication Perspective. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press Inc. , 1996. www. Biography. com Abraham Lincoln (www. biography. com/search/article. do? id†=9382540 www. notablebiographies. com/Ki-Lo/Lincoln-Abraham. html How to cite Abraham Lincoln Essay 2, Essays

The Odyssey Essay Paper Example For Students

The Odyssey Essay Paper The OdysseyThe Odyssey is one of the two great epic poems written by the ancient Greek poet Homer. Due to its antiquity, it is not known when or where it was first written, nevertheless, the approximate date and place is 700 BC Greece. Later publications are widespread as the text is transcribed in modern English with no deviation from the original story. The story is set in the lands and seas in close proximity to Greece changing by books as Odysseus, the protagonist hero, recounts of his many fated adventures and misfortunes in a series of flashbacks. Odysseus, a survivor of the bloody Trojan War that left many Greek heroes dead and a city plundered, yearns to return Ithaca and his wife Penelope, who is solicited by countless suitors, yet due to an accidental grievance done to the God of Sea, Poseidon, Odysseus is plagued by misfortunes and spend nearly ten years traveling the seas searching a path home. The Odyssey is written in the third person omniscient perspective, perhaps the only voice capable of integrating Homers usage of the Gods and the supernatural. This perspective shifts as necessary to give the reader a full understanding of Odysseus journeys. In fact, without incorporating the supernatural forces, there would be no way of understanding why Odysseus is met with such inhospitality from certain Gods or constructing a majestic recount of the actions in the plot. Odysseus is the classic Greek hero by all standards. He is a hardened warrior who has fought against the Trojans, a dutiful husband who would journey years to return home, a cunning wayfarer who fares well with any host hostile or amicable, and a mortal in bipolar relation with the Gods. He may be the protagonist, yet as a mortal, he is only a servant to the Greek Gods. Poseidon has a bitter grudge against Odysseus for blinding the Cyclopes Polyphemus, yet Homer balances Odysseus fate by giving him the aid of the Goddess Athena. Thus, Odysseus fortunes and misfortunes are all the deeds and misdeeds of the Gods, and the protagonist is subject to his fate as determined by the supernatural. Homers implications about the life and fate of a man could be easily recapitulated as uncontrollable. Though the Greek Gods do not exist, mans fortunes and misfortunes still contain unexplainable entropy, leaving mortals with no precise knowledge or grasp of their future yet mortals do have an unfail ing sense of hope, just as Odysseus is determined to return home despite his foes and hardships. Odysseus wife Penelope is also an important character in the story despite the fact that Homer only writes in fragments about her. Without any news of Odysseus after the end of the Trojan War, she is treated as a widow and wooed by many soliciting men from the neighboring area. Homer has characterized her with an unfailing constitution and loyalty to Odysseus. She fends off the suitors with her cleverness, exemplified by her pretentious indecisive publicized to all the suitors, and waits desperately for Odysseus for indefinite years. Penelope is seen as stubborn in the eyes of her lovers, yet, unbeknownst to these men, her loyalty will be awarded when the Gods finally return Odysseus back to her as according to his fate. The Goddess Athena also favors her and help guides her faith despite the pressure of the suitors and Odysseuss years away. Homer has fictionalized Penelope with the necessary traits that make an ideal wife in Greek times. She is imbued with unyielding character, quic k wit, and lasting beauty. Athena is a prominent figure of the plot. According to Greek mythology, she is the daughter of Zeus, King of gods and men, and the goddess of wisdom and battle. As with many feminine supernatural figures in The Odyssey, she has a predilection for Odysseus and would watch over him passively throughout the plot. Homer has underscored her aid to Odysseus to counterbalance the weakening brought upon him by Poseidon. This careful equilibrium of heavenly forces is the constant recurring element in the plot that keeps Odysseus alive yet suffering at the same time. Her appearances in the plot are often under the disguise of mortal figures, mystifying her true identity as a goddess to all, yet she does reveal herself to Odysseus at several points, which shows a deep favorability that Homer protrudes to glorify Odysseus. Emily Dickinson, A Creative Poet During The Mid-nineteenth Century, Wr EssayHomer also uses the monsters in The Odyssey as indirect depictions of his ideas. The Cyclops Polyphemus, a behemoth giant, symbolizes natures brute force. It has the power of hundreds of men, yet it is hindered by a diminutive intelligence. Thus, Odysseus cunning defeat of Polyphemus proves to be the conquest of wit over strength. Homer also glorifies the evolutionary advantages of mortals mind over pure nature, yet Homer carefully limits this daring statement by introducing Poseidons vengeful punishments. Perhaps Homer has two contrasting messages about mans abilities over nature: man can defeat nature because of his intellect, yet it is often unwise to clash against nature. Another monster, the Sirens, is the apparent embodiment of all the deceitful temptations in mans life. The Sirens persuade men into their traps by beautiful hypnotic songs. Once a sailor has entered their trance, his or her life is doomed to Hades. Homer shows that there are many false enticements in the world; the only way to pass these obstacles is to maintain a linear course and never deviate from a fortified moral constitution. To be persuaded by these temptations is to fall into the fatal control of others, to be used without knowing. In the story, Odysseus hears songs about Ithaca and he is filled with nostalgia at that moment, yet his men controlled the ship and steered clear of danger. Sometimes, these temptations may be so alluring that a momentary emotional outbreak occurs, yet man should never rely purely on emotions, rather, rational thinking and logic must be prioritized to prevent fatal mistakes. One other monster, the six-headed Scylla, is the symbol of sacrifice. As Odysseus sails past the strait between Scylla and the whirlpool of Charybdis, he is forced to make a harsh decision to sail by Scylla and lose at most six sailors rather than sailing by Charybdis and lose the entire crew. It was a hard decision for Odysseus to make, yet it is the only way to save the entire crew. Homer establishes a clear message about the necessity to sacrifice in time of need despite certain unpreventable losses. Another important symbol employed by Homer also concerns the deities. Every time a deity visits Odysseus, a mortal form is chosen and the deitys true identity is kept secret. This disguise represents the idea that life can never by judged purely by the outlook. The true significance of things is not proportionally reflected by their material form. The suitors can also be seen as thugs in disguises of gentlemen. Even though they promise to be civil visitors in the residence of Penelope, they are truly symbols of the lowest form that men can be. Their characterizations bring up only disgust and hatred, the far extreme low point of humanity. In other terms, the manifestation of anything may either be an overstatement or an understatement of the truth. Relevant to this idea, Homer also mentions the importance of modesty and amicability. Odysseus is always humble and gracious to the people he meets, despite their stature in the world. This is one of the many characteristics of Odysseus th at makes him welcomed by many. Homers theme may be that hospitality is one of the more honorable traits of humanity and a moral that should be shared by many. Homer has built a myriad of symbols and themes in The Odyssey. His epic is not only an entertaining enduring literature, but an education and enlightening of the mind. The plot moves continuously from action to action, yet weaved within the twenty-four books of this poem is numerous life lessons that are invaluable to even the modern society.

New England And Chesapeake Colonies Essays - Thirteen Colonies

New England And Chesapeake Colonies Early English colonies in America hardly resembled the union of men and women that would later fight against England and build a new country. In fact, until the mid-eighteenth century, most English colonists had very little, if anything to do with the settlers in neighboring colonies. They heard news of Indian wars and other noteworthy events, not from the colony itself, but from England. The colonies in the New World appeared completely different and the prospect of any unity between them seemed impossible. The colonies in New England and the Chesapeake exemplify the many differences in the culture and lifestyles of the settlers, created mainly because of the fact that their founding fathers had held separate intentions when they came to the New World. The New England and Chesapeake colonies were both settled by immigrants from England, the New England colonies being founded by the English from East Anglia, an area in eastern England. Though this was an area thriving with small towns that they had generally liked, they decided to flee England due to religious persecution. Hundreds of families, men, women and their children, came in search of a New World where they could practice their beliefs freely. They founded colonies such as Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island as model Christian societies. Their cities upon the hills were guides, the lanterns, for those lost in the darkness of humanity, as John Winthrop meant by his famous statement. They formed a society of strict religious participation, actually very much resembling their homeland. In the beginning, many called themselves Puritans, and kept things very simple and plain, concentrating on what was important to them. They used the community to achieve t heir goals, building new towns and enjoying the social aspect of their religion. At the same time, they were committed to remain working hard to keep their community productive. They believed the idle hands were the devils workshops. An issue that really defined a split between the societies was the slavery conflict. The northerners in New England held true to their belief that every man shall be equal and no one should be enslaved, while the southerners in the Chesapeake area strongly believed in the use of slavery. At the same time the New Englanders worked to help end slavery by preaching to others about the injustices, they worked diligently to make education in their society strong. Most people in the towns were literate so that they could read their Bibles and study them in detail with their friends and family. Some colonists were artisans or merchants. Others were small-town farmers, making sure that every member of the community had a reasonable share of Gods land. The northern colonies were renowned for being rich in furs, timber and fish. They were especially noted for developing into a very successful trading region. The New England colonies made up the middle class society whose focal points were fami ly, education and religion. The society remained non-capitalistic, yet still buzzed with much activity. On the other hand, the Chesapeake region had a cash crop get rich quickly mentality. This aristocratic region consisted of Virginia and Maryland, two colonies that seemed to be exceedingly materialistic. Evidently, their lives were based more on their liquid assets than on God or family. The Englanders who saw the opportunity to take advantage of the popularity of a brand new crop they had discovered settled the Chesapeake area. These gold diggers were mainly upper-class men of wealthy families aspiring towards coming to the New World to create a large profit for themselves. These colonists were not fleeing England seeking religious or social freedom, but clearly only to add more wealth to their names. Tobacco soon became the primary crop seen growing on almost every one of these wealthy mens plantations, which created tremendous amounts of money to add to their fortunes. Of course almost every plantation had African slaves working on the land. These colossal estates came to depend o n their slaves to run their farms and slavery became a common, yet feared, way of life for many Africans. Unfortunately for these Chesapeake colonies, due to swampy land in much of the area, towns were

For Our ESL Readers

For Our ESL Readers For Our ESL Readers For Our ESL Readers By Maeve Maddox Sometimes readers write asking for basic English instruction that lies outside the scope of this site. This post is for them and for our readers who teach ESL. Many good ESL sites exist online. The English Club seems to be one of the best. The English Club is a site based in Cambridge, England. It was created in 1997 by British-born Josef Essberger. Access to all parts of the site is free. Content is targeted to ESL teachers as well as to students. The site offers a huge amount of content that includes: lessons games videos lesson plans forums lists of idioms, sayings, slang, etc. The English Club has four companion sites: Easy English offers quizzes of varying degrees of difficulty TEFL.net offers help exclusively for teachers eslAdmin.com information for school administrators ESL resources available for purchase Some other ESL sites of interest English pronunciation Learn English Through Pictures English Vocabulary Games with Pictures Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:5 Uses of Infinitives8 Proofreading Tips And Techniques10 Tips to Improve Your Writing Skills

Leadership for Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leadership for Health - Essay Example Health care industry should be among the most excellently managed industries globally. Leaders in the health care industry should familiarise with the most effective leadership styles and strategies from successful institutions and organisations in applying them for promoting their own. Some of the variably admired traits that nursing leaders should possess include the ability to inspire, exhibit honesty, intelligence, competence and visionary. The four leadership styles that demonstrate the ideals of moral leadership include transformational, evidence-based, authentic and servant leadership. Transformational leaders are charismatic and act as role models to their followers. This is because they yearn to inspire autonomy as well as promote servant leadership (Nielsen, Yarker, Brenner, Randall and Borg, 2008). They motivate nurses to engage in problem solving strategies, team work in decision making procedures and personal professional development through strategies such as coaching a nd mentoring. According to Leach (2005), application of transformational leadership style enhances the act of communicating organisational or professional mission, vision and goals. Shirley (2006) posits that authentic leadership is practised by individuals committed to personal core values, compassionate leadership as well as understanding their own sense of purpose. Authentic leaders possess profound integrity and have abundant sense of personal conviction in matters related to personal beliefs and values. Authentic leaders are appropriate for managing and overseeing the nursing units and departments dealing with the care of old people because their high level of awareness enables them to advise and lead their followers accordingly. Servant leadership is a product of the possession... This paper approves that there is no doubt that health care leadership is at stake. Any health organisation that is mindful of the future should prioritise the tradition of perfect leadership. Improving leadership will involve training the new leaders on effective application of the new technology and instilling the required leadership capabilities. Leaders in the health sector should learn the most effective methods of management in order to promote the industry into the greater heights. Leaders should ensure that the context and concept in which nursing care is provided is appropriate for improved care. Some of the strategies that enhance improved care include appropriate mixing of skills, creation of the systems that facilitates shared decision making, facilitating staff relationships and establishment of systems that are supportive to the work force This report makes a conclusion that technical practice development approaches are short term and normally focused on the results rather than the strategies used in the achievement of those results. This approach is task based and specific to the project e.g. the inclusion of a new policy in nursing practice or acquiring new skills and competencies. However, this approach is currently ineffective because it involves the application of contemporary top-to-down approach of implementing change. The best alterative to the technical approach is the emancipatory practice development. Application of this strategy by the nurses involves focusing on the practices that improves health care practice through the development of sustainability and person centred cultures.

Principles of Marketing for Example Toga Toys Essay - 3

Principles of Marketing for Example Toga Toys - Essay Example The business or marketing strategies of a company for the new product should be formulated on the basis of certain external market information. Thus, before formulating a marketing plan, Toga Toys should always acquire valuable information regarding the toy industry and external business environmental conditions (Baker and Hart, 2007). The growth of new business firms indicates the creation of greater employment opportunities. Thus the political authority of almost all the nations encourages new business growth and greater degree commercialization within their domestic economy. The toy companies are subjected to certain regulations imposed the government authorities. The Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act, 2008, the government of U.S. has stated that all the toy companies that manufacture toys of children under 14 years, should maintain the Federal Toy Safety Standards (Hoffman, 2010). Governments of other nations like China, India, and U.K. have also implemented similar types of regulations. Over time, with the rise in employment opportunities, the living standards of individuals across nations have increased. This has helped to augment the per person disposable income levels. Many toy companies conduct their manufacturing activities in emerging developing nations like China. This is because, the currency value of the country is low and companies are able to manufacture their products at lower costs (Hoffman, 2010). It is estimated that the proportion of internet users have significantly increased in the current era. Many children and young individuals prefer to spend time on social media over the internet. This has lowered the popularity of outdoor and indoor sports among children.

Tourism Planning Discussion Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Tourism Planning Discussion Paper - Essay Example Tourism industry seeks to renew the development process, stimulate a country’s economy, encourage the preservation of the cultural heritage and create international peace and harmony. The tourism industry generates potential employment opportunities on a large scale. It pays homage to all the countries in the world characterized by diverse culture and symbolism. Tourism industry is also represented as the multicomponent industry with different industries of economic importance interlinked inextricably. The greatest contribution to this Industry comes from the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) and World Trade Organization (WTO). There are innumerable political and economical challenges faced by the global tourism industry extending from the terrorism threats to the global recession and that of the Communist Eastern Bloc. The positive impact of tourism clearly justifies the tourism development while the negative impacts of the environment stimulate the need for better and fresh tourism planning (Trade-wings Institute Of Management, 2000). The trend followed by the tourism development range from the systematic approach to those of contemporary ones. According to Waterson and Rose, Planning is a complex and ambiguous process. The concept of Physical Planning existed from the early centuries. According to Branch, â€Å"cities in India as early as 3000 B.C were divided into the square blocks, oriented to the cardinal points and laid out to allow the circulation between them†. In United Kingdom, the planning was in practice for two centuries as pointed by Cherry. The physical layout plan dates back to Greek and Roman. The physical and social illness caused due to industrialization led to the stimulation for planning in England. With the addition of social and economic dimension to planning, emerged the concept of tourism planning. Jafari observed and acknowledged the fact of changing professional and popular meaning of tourism. Now

Revolution in Military Affairs

Revolution in Military Affairs CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"The Ultimate Determinant in War is the Man on the Scene with the Gun.† Rear Admiral J. C. Wylie, USN. 1. The notion of military revolutions grew from Soviet writing of the 1970s and 1980s. Early studies talked of a Military Technical Revolution (MTR), which is the impact of a new technology on warfare, but this quickly evolved into the more holistic concept of â€Å"Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)†, which encompasses the subsequent transformation of operations and organization. Most analysts define a RMA as a discontinuous increase in military capability and effectiveness arising from simultaneous and mutually supportive change in technology, systems, operational methods, and military organizations†[1]. Another definition is, RMA â€Å"is a major change in the nature of warfare brought about by the innovative application of new technologies which, combined with dramatic changes in military doctrine, operational and organizational concepts, fundamentally alters the character and conduct of military operations†[2]. 2. A revolution in military affairs involves big changes that occur relatively quickly and which tend to spread beyond the profession of arms into the realm of foreign policy. Historical examples include the onset of the telegraph and the rail-road in the last century, the changes surrounding in direct artillery fire, motor vehicles (including tanks), and aircraft in the first half of this century, and the advent of nuclear weapons nearly one half century ago. Now, the information revolution has paved the way for the present revolutionary transformations in warfare[3]. 3. Famous futurists like Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler have quoted that, â€Å"a military revolution, in its fullest scene, occurs only, when an entire society transforms itself, forcing its armed forces to change at every level simultaneously from technology and culture to organization, strategy, tactics, training, doctrine and logistics†[4]. 4. However a difficulty arises in understanding the current debate over the RMA because some use the term as referring to the revolutionary technology itself that is driving change, while others use the term as referring to revolutionary adaptations by military organizations that may be necessary to deal with the changes in technology or the geopolitical environment, and still others use the term to refer to the revolutionary impact of geopolitical or technological change on the outcome of military conflicts, with specific reference to the political and economic context of globalisation , regardless of the nature of the particular technology or the reaction of the participants to the technological change[5]. The difference in terms of reference leads to different suggested alternatives. 5. The first perspective focuses primarily upon changes in the nation-state and the role of an organised military in using force. This approach highlights the political, social, and economic factors worldwide, which might require a completely different type of military and organisational structure to apply force in the future. Authors such as RANDs Sean J. A. Edwards (advocate of Battle Swarm tactics), Carl H. Builder and Lt. Col. Ralph Peters emphasized the decline of the nation-state, the nature of the emerging international order, and the different types of forces needed in the near future. 6. The second perspective most commonly assigned the term RMA highlights the evolution of weapons technology, information technology, military organization, and military doctrine among advanced powers. This System of Systems perspective on RMA has been ardently supported by Admiral William Owens[6], former Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who identified three overlapping areas for force assets. These are intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, command, control, communications and intelligence processing, and precision force to enable Dominant Battlefield Knowledge (DBK). Advanced versions of RMA incorporate other sophisticated technologies, including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), nanotechnology, robotics, and biotechnology. Presently the RMA debate is focussed on network-centric warfare which is a doctrine that aims to connect all troops on the battlefield. 7. Finally, the third concept is that a true revolution in military affairs has not yet occurred or is unlikely to. Authors such as Michael OHanlon and Frederick Kagan, point to the fact much of the technology and weapon systems ascribed to the contemporary RMA were in development long before 1991 and the flashy Internet and information technology boom. Several critics point out that a revolution within the military ranks might carry detrimental consequences, produce severe economic strain, and ultimately prove counterproductive. Such authors tend to profess a much more gradual evolution in military affairs, as opposed a rapid revolution†. 8. Moreover there is also considerable disagreement over the causes[7], the conditions that are necessary for them to occur, their consequences for warfare and the international system more broadly and, of course, over whether a particular development does or does not qualify for the label. Where one draws the line for what counts as an RMA will depend on the restrictiveness or permissiveness of ones definition of the concept. 9. Whatever the interpretation is, an RMA should fundamentally affect strategy and the role of the military in the international system, leading to a qualitative shift in what war is and how it is conducted. It should be a period of great acceleration of change that has far greater consequences than routine revolution, and which therefore demands specific attention. 10. But what is essential is that the ramifications of the RMA need to be understood not only by military officers but also by strategy planners, both military and civil. The military has to contend with information and space warfare, in addition to land, sea and air. The strategy planners, on the other hand, have to consider the economic, political, military and information aspects in their policy and decision making. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY 1. A few of the types of RMAs of importance in the yesteryears and presently in vogue today include combined- system RMAs (a collection of military systems put together in new ways to achieve a revolutionary effect), single-system RMA (single technology, nuclear fission/ fusion, drove the revolution) and an† integrated-system RMA† (various systems, when joined with their accompanying operational and organizational concepts, will become integrated systems). 2. RMAs have risen from various sources, with manybut not allof them technological. Societal change has also contributed to a military revolution during the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, in which the levee en masse allowed for the creation of larger, national armies. Statement of the Problem 3. To study the likely impact of embracing the ongoing information driven RMA on organizational structure, doctrinal precepts, tactical technological developments and the changes necessitated for effective implementation of this RMA. The lessons learnt by the US Army in this regard will serve as a useful guide. Justification 4. The description of the revolution in military affairs is neither definitive nor conclusive. The discussion is intended primarily to stimulate thinking in unique and more meaningful ways about how warfare in the twenty-first century may be fundamentally different than it is today and, of equal importance, evaluating what we should be doing now to prepare ourselves for that eventuality. 5. A number of changes must occur if any military is going to compete successfully on the battlefields of the future. There must be a change in outlook i.e. change in the way about preparing for the future. The military must nurture an attitude that supports free thinking and accepts honest mistakes, encourages experimentation, rewards risk takers, and makes provisions for starting over. As an organization, the military must break out of the box, consider alternative futures, think the unthinkable and let go of the conventional modes of operation. Statement of Objectives 6. While all concepts proposed by RMA analysts may be relevant, the issue needs deliberation in a more professional manner. That includes even the US by their own admission. The understanding of the various ramifications of RMA by the strategy planners as well as military officers would lead to certain questions: (a) What does RMA mean in the Indian context and what are its practical implications? (b) With RMA powered by the recent explosion in IT and keeping in mind our strength in this field how far ahead can we go and achieve the much-touted concepts of RMA? (c) What national posture do we need to adopt how should our national doctrine be formulated on RMA to include the three services, bureaucrats and other agencies responsible for national security? (d) Is reorganisation of the armed forces essential so as to respond and adapt to the organisational challenge posed by the emergence of Information Technology? Would it really meet the desired effect of flattening the organisation and shortening the various channels of command? (e) What should the pace of conduct of customised training for the Indian Armed Forces in the field of information warfare and operations be? Scope 7. The scope of this dissertation shall be limited to the impact of IT on RMA and changes required in view of the variance in views regarding RMA. The various implications on the Indian Armed Forces especially the army shall be analysed in detail to include various imperatives in the strategic, operational, tactical, administrative, organisational and training realms. Hypothesis 8. The present ongoing RMA has been ushered in by Information Technology. However there are varied views of analysists regarding the changes that would be necessitated for effectively embracing this RMA. This coupled with fixed mindsets has led to problems in effectively embracing the current RMA. In analyzing the changes required in the Indian context lessons can be drawn from the processes employed by the US Army, the first force to take steps in this direction. Limitations of the Research 9. An in-depth research on the subject would need face-to-face interaction with the various authorities in charge of national security i.e. the Armed Forces, bureaucrats, police, paramilitary and intelligence agencies. Owing to constraints limited information has been gained through seminars and discussions. Compulsions of confidentiality have also limited the depth of research. Methods of Data Collection 10. Most of the material has been collected primarily through secondary sources, i.e. various books, periodicals and magazines from the DSSC Library. Tertiary sources like various journals and reviews have also been referred to. Bibliography is attached as appendix. The other major source has been the Internet with the sites accessed listed at the end of bibliography. Organisation of the Dissertation 11. This study has been organised into a number of chapters as under:- (a) Chapter I Introduction. In Chapter I, the importance of understanding the various connotations of RMA has been brought out. (b) Chapter II Methodology. It covers the Statement of the Problem, Scope and Methodology of carrying out research for the dissertation. (c) Chapter III Current RMA Its Impact. This chapter covers the facets on which the current RMA is premised. (d) Chapter IV An Overview of Enablers Required for Initiating/ Implementing RMA. This chapter covers the imperatives for implementing RMA. (e) Chapter V Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Organisational Structure. (f) Chapter V I- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Technological, Tactical Doctrinal Aspects. (g) Chapter VII- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Training Aspects. (h) Chapter VIII- Case Study on Implementation of Current RMA by US. (j) Chapter IX- Relevance to India. (k) Chapter X- Conclusion (l) Bibliography. CHAPTER III CURRENT RMA ITS IMPACT 1. The current RMA includes the new tools and processes of waging war like Information Warfare (IW), Network Centric Warfare (NCW), Integrated Command and Control (C4ISR), System of Systems, all powered by IT[8]. The status of information has been raised from being raw material for intelligence to a level where it is now accepted as a tool, or even a new medium for war fighting. Information superiority has led to attainment of decision superiority. The lethality of information power is like any other power. Op Iraqi Freedom launched on 19 March 2003 was a major success essentially due to receipt of information in a short time frame. Establishing information dominance over ones adversary will become a major focus of the operational art[9] in the future. 2. The United States has led and maintains a significant advantage in the development of information- based technologies. This advantage is well grounded in U.S. military capabilities[10]. The roots of the U.S. militarys information-based RMA have been decades in the making. As information-based technologies and capabilities continue to mature, they have become much less expensive, and by their very nature, can be rapidly incorporated by other military forces to enhance their capabilities. 3. Information superiority consists of the integration of offensive and defensive information operations. Improved intelligence collection and assessment, as well as modern information processing and command and control capabilities, are at the heart of the current RMA[11]. With such enhanced capabilities nations will be able to respond rapidly to any conflict. Forces will achieve a state of information superiority, in near real-time, which will be pervasive across the full spectrum of military operations, enabling the force commander to dominate any situation. Velocity of battles would be speeded up causing a collapse of enemys command and control structures causing a rout essentially due to shortening of own OODA loop[12]. 4. The capabilities of the present RMA have yielded transformation of weapon systems, military organizations and operations through the integration of Information Technologies. When information technologies are integrated into a coherent system that includes modern weapon systems operated by highly trained personnel, they provide force multipliers to military formations[13], allowing them to perform more complex manoeuvres, to fire accurately at longer range and to experience a higher degree of situational awareness compared to their opponents. Information warfare can be anything from striking headquarters or communications systems with conventional weapons, hacking computer systems, conducting propaganda and psychological operations, or even to committing atrocities to instill panic in the enemys population. Dynamics of the Current RMA. 5. The current RMA is driven by three primary factors[14] i.e. rapid technological advance compelling a shift from the Industrial Age to the Information Age, the end of the Cold War and a decline in defence budgets. The transition is forcing a change in the way the military services are organized, how they are supplied, how they procure weapons and how they are managed, and, most importantly, how they think and fight. The extent to which the U S Armed Forces have accepted these changes, however, has been remarkable, particularly given that the draw downs, relocations, reorganizations and other fundamental alterations to the way they operate began immediately following a victory of immense proportions in the Gulf War; a victory which confirmed the tremendous progress made in rebuilding the services, especially the Army, after the Vietnam War. The Army is not only restructuring as it downsizes, it also is changing the very way it thinks about war. 6. The development of computers, satellites, and imagery has been occurring at an astounding rate, and there is no indication that this will slow down in the foreseeable future. The inference is that the future military will expand the ability to collect, evaluate and disseminate information relevant to the battlefield at a rate far greater than now. According to Libicki, future precision strike capabilities will mean that, to be seen on the battlefield is to be killed†. 7. Gen Shalikashral of the US Army realising the current RMAs importance gave the concept of â€Å"Joint Force 2010†[15]. This concept is basically aimed at giving a frame work for the application of RMA by US forces by 2010 to achieve â€Å"Full Spectrum Dominance† or total dominance. This concept is based on four pillars:- (a) Dominant Manoeuvre. It implies an operation from various dispersed points all focusing on one target. Dominating manoeuvre will deploy the right forces at the right time and place to cause the enemys psychological collapse and complete capitulation. (b) Precision Engagement. This means the engagement of the target with extreme precision by PGMs from land or sea platforms. For this accurate data collection about the target is very important to make the engagement effective. (c) Full Dimensional Protection. This is the ability to protect the forces including plans from any damage. This enhances the scope of what has to be protected. (d) Focussed Logistics. It means reducing the logistic load to only the essential requirement in shortest possible time, at the fastest speed and in the correct quantity. The RMA also enables to calculate precisely what is required, how much is required and where required. 8. The current rate of change suggests that state of the art in any technological context will be an extremely short-lived phenomenon[16], particularly with respect to the technologies that were key to the success of Desert Storm including space systems, telecommunications systems, computer architectures, global information distribution networks, and navigation systems. Future revolutions will occur much more rapidly, offering far less time for adaptation to new methods of warfare. The growing imperative in the business world for rapid response to changing conditions in order to survive in an intensely competitive environment is surely instructive for military affairs. Corporations repeatedly have to make major changes in strategy to accommodate the full implications of technologies, which have already existed many years. 9. Exploiting the Information Age. The armed forces must develop the essential competences in personnel to exploit new technologies and systems to the full and to ensure that leaders have the right skills to deliver and integrate information projects successfully. To help meet these requirements, there is a need to develop information age skills for everyone joining the armed forces. Efforts should also be made to increase opportunities [17] for personnel already serving besides increasing IT awareness training during initial training. 10. Many analysts agree on one important fact that the current revolution in military affairs seems to have at least two stages[18]. In the drive to limit military casualties, stand-off platforms, stealth, precision, information dominance, and missile defence are the first stage. The second may be robotics, nonlethality, pyschotechnology, and elaborate cyber defence. The revolution in military affairs may see the transition from concern with centres of gravity to a less mechanistic and more sophisticated notion of interlinked systems. 11. The armed forces no longer have to request scientists to develop a specific technology for possible military use. Quite likely, it will be the scientists who would be chasing military planners prodding them to use technologies that can now be converted to weapons much quicker than before through computer simulation, cutting development and production cycles dramatically[19]. CHAPTER IV An Overview of Enablers Required for INITIATING/ Implementing RMA 1. An analysis gives rise to the three dimensions of the RMA required for a nation to effectively implement it. First is the conscious decision on the part of a state to acquire all or portions of what might be termed an RMA complex. Second is the ability to acquire or develop the systems that constitute RMA-type technologies. Last, and perhaps most important, is the ability, organizationally and operationally, to adapt technologies in ways that bring into being the full military potential of an RMA. 2. Even though the revolution in military affairs has attracted some brilliant thinkers, systematic strategic discourse remains rare. Except for Andrew Krepinevich[20] and Jeffrey Cooper, few writers have attempted to place the current RMA in its broader theoretic and historic context. Moreover, the fact of change may be most dramatically manifested in combat, but historically the most profound RMAs are peacetime phenomena. Militaries are driven to innovate during peacetime by the need to make more efficient use of shrinking resources, by reacting to major changes in the security environment[21]. 3. Both the Tofflers, who identify only two historical military revolutions, and Krepinevich, who distinguishes ten since the 14th century, are suggestive of implementing RMA through major and minor revolutions in military affairs as under:- (a) Minor Revolutions. Minor revolutions in military affairs tend to be initiated by individual technological or social changes, occur in relatively short periods (less than a decade), and have their greatest direct impact on the battlefield. Minor revolutions in military affairs can be deliberately shaped and controlled. A minor revolution in military affairs driven by military applications of silicon-chip technology is already underway and the next minor revolution will be driven by robotics and psycho technology. (b) Major Revolutions[22]. Major revolutions in military affairs are the result of combined multiple technological, economic, social, cultural and/or military changes, usually occur over relatively long periods (greater that a decade), and have direct impact on strategy. Major revolutions cannot be deliberately shaped and controlled. The world is potentially at the beginning of one. 4. Enablers for revolutions in military affairs appear to follow a cyclical pattern with initial stasis followed by initiation, critical mass, consolidation, response, and return to stasis. Revolutions in military affairs can be initiated by one breakthrough power or by a group. In the modern security system, revolutions in military affairs are usually inspired by outright defeat or by a perception of inferiority or decline versus a peer or niche opponent. Revolutions in military affairs have a point of critical mass when changes in concepts, organizations, and technology meld. Once recognized, every revolutionary breakthrough generates responses. Responses to revolutions in military affairs can be symmetric or asymmetric; asymmetric responses may be more difficult to counter. 5. The greatest advantage for the breakthrough power lies in the period immediately following critical mass; thus, there may be a temptation to initiate conflict before responses can be effective. All revolutions in military affairs have a culminating point [23], at which innovation and change slow or stop, determined by the interaction between the revolutionary breakthrough and the responses, followed by a consolidation phase This may occur when leaders become satisfied with the military balance and will no longer risk radical change. It may also occur when costs of change are thought to outweigh the benefits of further expenditure. During the consolidation phase, superior training and leadership may be the only ways to achieve superior relative combat effectiveness against symmetric responses. 6. At times, a single state can initiate revolution by recognizing how to effectively combine various evolutionary developments, new ideas, and technology. Napoleonic France and the Mongols of Genghis Khan were examples of single state breakthroughs. At other times, there can be a collective breakthrough as when the European powers of the mid-19th to early 20th centuries combined industrialization, railroads, improved metallurgy and explosives, the telegraph, barbed wire, concrete, improved methods of government funding, nationalism, breech loading, rifled artillery and small arms, steam-driven, armoured ships, internal combustion engines, radio, increased literacy and public health, improved explosives, and the machine gun. 7. Always, though, the essence of the revolution is not the invention of new technology, but discovery of innovative ways to organize, operate, and employ new technology. Revolutions in military affairs begin when the potential latent in technological, conceptual, political, economic, social, and organizational changes that have occurred or are occurring is recognized and converted to augment combat effectiveness. In pre-modern, heterogeneous security systems, revolution was often initiated by states outside the system or on its periphery. Sometimes their advantage accrued from superior morale, training, organization, leadership, strategy, or tactics. 8. In the modern, communications-intensive security system, revolutions in military affairs have most frequently been initiated by a state within the system[24]. This is because fundamental change of any kind is difficult, even frightening; those who unleash revolution never know exactly where it will take them. Uncertainty as to the eventual outcome means that political and military leaders satisfied with their states security situation will seldom run the risks of revolution. Usually, then, only real or imagined danger can provide the spark. 9. Initiation of a revolution requires revolutionaries. RMAs are led by armed forces that tolerate and, at the appropriate time, empower visionaries. The decision to do this is a vital juncture in military revolutions. In the past, only a peer competitor could offer enough of a threat to empower military visionaries and dispel the miasma of inertia and petrified thinking. This may be changing. The military role in implementing innovative ideas is crucial. As one observer noted, â€Å"many important wartime technical innovations such as the tank, proximity fuse, and microwave radar, and organizational innovations such as new doctrines for submarine warfare and strategic targeting functions for American bombers, were pursued at the initiative of military officers or with their vigorous support.† What may be key to â€Å"winning the innovation battle† is a professional military climate, which fosters thinking in unconstrained fashion about future war. The other critical re quirement is the ability and willingness of relatively junior officers who are now out in the field and fleet to think about the future. They are likely to be in closer touch with new and emerging technologies, which have potential military application. As operators, they are aware of the operational and organizational problems that they must deal with daily and hence are prime clients for possible solutions[25]. Further, an offensive concept is vital for the implementation of RMA. 10. The most successful revolutionary states turn military advantage into economic and political dominance, but the transition is difficult. Being the first to understand or implement a RMA does not guarantee even military victory. A breakthrough state or coalition which clearly understands the RMA but which fails to develop an appropriate, balanced, strategy can-and usually will-lose to a state or coalition, which lags in understanding but possesses superior strategic prowess[26]. History is littered with breakthrough military states which ultimately failed, whether those of Genghis Khan, Napoleon Bonaparte, or Imperial and Nazi Germany. 11. The course of the current RMA is not preordained. Key policy decisions made now will both affect the pace of revolution and the shape of the 21st century force that emerges from it. Perhaps the most fundamental choice of all concerns the enthusiasm with which developed nations should pursue the current minor RMA and the extent to which it should shape force development. Often this is not even considered due to the traditional approach to technology. Technology is respected, almost deified. There are sound historical reasons for this. During its formative period, many nations suffered from chronic shortages of skilled labour, thus forcing reliance on labour-saving technology. Eli Whitney, Robert Fulton, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and thousands of other entrepreneurs and inventors harnessed technology in the name of efficiency. Reflecting this legacy, many nations have often evinced an unreflective trust in the ultimate benefit of technology. However, a reasonable case can be made that too vigorous pursuit of the current minor RMA is undesirable or dangerous, that the costs and risks outweigh the expected benefits. Budget constraints and the changing nature of global presence provide the broad context within which redesign of any military will unfold. However, it is to the technological factor, in the present era that basic judgments about force structure changes are attributed to[27]. 12. The utility of the current RMA[28], with its stress on precision, standoff strikes, falls off dramatically toward the poles of the military/technology spectrum. Opponents at the low end of the spectrum tend to operate in widely dispersed fashion and emit a limited electronic signature, thus complicating targeting. Their organization is often cellular, making decapitation difficult. If they are insurgents, they intermingle with the population. It is also important for successful implementation of RMA, the organizational enabler i.e. all important commanders, must be ingrained in military doctrine and practice failing which the RMA is not guaranteed to take hold throughout todays defense organizations. Second, unless the rational basis for the strategy is translated into an overarching vision, the RMA faces obstacles in the form of powerful, change-resistant bureaucratic forces[29]. 13. Enablers for RMA [30] need to be constantly viewed under the effect of the following:- (a) The political context. This is the breeding ground of war, and hence warfare. (b) The strategic context. The strategic context expresses the relationship between political demand and military supply, keyed to the particular tasks specific to a conflict. (c) The social-cultural context. Social-cultural trends are likely to prove more revealing at an early stage of the prospects for revolutionary change in warfare than missile tests, defense contracts, military maneuvers, or even, possibly, and some limited demonstration of a novel prowess in combat. (d) The economic context. Though wars are rarely waged for economic reasons, warfare is economic behaviour, interalia, just as it is, and has to be, logistical behaviour also. (e) The technological context. Warfare always has a technological context, but that context is not always the principal fuel for revolutionary change. (f) The geographical context. Military revolution keyed to the emerging exploitation of a new geographical environment has beckoned both the visionary theorist and the bold military professional. Imperatives for Effective Implementation of RMA[31] 14. Certain desirable features for implementation of RMA are:- (a) Design of a RMA force structure that would effectively use technology. (b) Technological development Revolution in Military Affairs Revolution in Military Affairs CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"The Ultimate Determinant in War is the Man on the Scene with the Gun.† Rear Admiral J. C. Wylie, USN. 1. The notion of military revolutions grew from Soviet writing of the 1970s and 1980s. Early studies talked of a Military Technical Revolution (MTR), which is the impact of a new technology on warfare, but this quickly evolved into the more holistic concept of â€Å"Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)†, which encompasses the subsequent transformation of operations and organization. Most analysts define a RMA as a discontinuous increase in military capability and effectiveness arising from simultaneous and mutually supportive change in technology, systems, operational methods, and military organizations†[1]. Another definition is, RMA â€Å"is a major change in the nature of warfare brought about by the innovative application of new technologies which, combined with dramatic changes in military doctrine, operational and organizational concepts, fundamentally alters the character and conduct of military operations†[2]. 2. A revolution in military affairs involves big changes that occur relatively quickly and which tend to spread beyond the profession of arms into the realm of foreign policy. Historical examples include the onset of the telegraph and the rail-road in the last century, the changes surrounding in direct artillery fire, motor vehicles (including tanks), and aircraft in the first half of this century, and the advent of nuclear weapons nearly one half century ago. Now, the information revolution has paved the way for the present revolutionary transformations in warfare[3]. 3. Famous futurists like Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler have quoted that, â€Å"a military revolution, in its fullest scene, occurs only, when an entire society transforms itself, forcing its armed forces to change at every level simultaneously from technology and culture to organization, strategy, tactics, training, doctrine and logistics†[4]. 4. However a difficulty arises in understanding the current debate over the RMA because some use the term as referring to the revolutionary technology itself that is driving change, while others use the term as referring to revolutionary adaptations by military organizations that may be necessary to deal with the changes in technology or the geopolitical environment, and still others use the term to refer to the revolutionary impact of geopolitical or technological change on the outcome of military conflicts, with specific reference to the political and economic context of globalisation , regardless of the nature of the particular technology or the reaction of the participants to the technological change[5]. The difference in terms of reference leads to different suggested alternatives. 5. The first perspective focuses primarily upon changes in the nation-state and the role of an organised military in using force. This approach highlights the political, social, and economic factors worldwide, which might require a completely different type of military and organisational structure to apply force in the future. Authors such as RANDs Sean J. A. Edwards (advocate of Battle Swarm tactics), Carl H. Builder and Lt. Col. Ralph Peters emphasized the decline of the nation-state, the nature of the emerging international order, and the different types of forces needed in the near future. 6. The second perspective most commonly assigned the term RMA highlights the evolution of weapons technology, information technology, military organization, and military doctrine among advanced powers. This System of Systems perspective on RMA has been ardently supported by Admiral William Owens[6], former Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who identified three overlapping areas for force assets. These are intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, command, control, communications and intelligence processing, and precision force to enable Dominant Battlefield Knowledge (DBK). Advanced versions of RMA incorporate other sophisticated technologies, including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), nanotechnology, robotics, and biotechnology. Presently the RMA debate is focussed on network-centric warfare which is a doctrine that aims to connect all troops on the battlefield. 7. Finally, the third concept is that a true revolution in military affairs has not yet occurred or is unlikely to. Authors such as Michael OHanlon and Frederick Kagan, point to the fact much of the technology and weapon systems ascribed to the contemporary RMA were in development long before 1991 and the flashy Internet and information technology boom. Several critics point out that a revolution within the military ranks might carry detrimental consequences, produce severe economic strain, and ultimately prove counterproductive. Such authors tend to profess a much more gradual evolution in military affairs, as opposed a rapid revolution†. 8. Moreover there is also considerable disagreement over the causes[7], the conditions that are necessary for them to occur, their consequences for warfare and the international system more broadly and, of course, over whether a particular development does or does not qualify for the label. Where one draws the line for what counts as an RMA will depend on the restrictiveness or permissiveness of ones definition of the concept. 9. Whatever the interpretation is, an RMA should fundamentally affect strategy and the role of the military in the international system, leading to a qualitative shift in what war is and how it is conducted. It should be a period of great acceleration of change that has far greater consequences than routine revolution, and which therefore demands specific attention. 10. But what is essential is that the ramifications of the RMA need to be understood not only by military officers but also by strategy planners, both military and civil. The military has to contend with information and space warfare, in addition to land, sea and air. The strategy planners, on the other hand, have to consider the economic, political, military and information aspects in their policy and decision making. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY 1. A few of the types of RMAs of importance in the yesteryears and presently in vogue today include combined- system RMAs (a collection of military systems put together in new ways to achieve a revolutionary effect), single-system RMA (single technology, nuclear fission/ fusion, drove the revolution) and an† integrated-system RMA† (various systems, when joined with their accompanying operational and organizational concepts, will become integrated systems). 2. RMAs have risen from various sources, with manybut not allof them technological. Societal change has also contributed to a military revolution during the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, in which the levee en masse allowed for the creation of larger, national armies. Statement of the Problem 3. To study the likely impact of embracing the ongoing information driven RMA on organizational structure, doctrinal precepts, tactical technological developments and the changes necessitated for effective implementation of this RMA. The lessons learnt by the US Army in this regard will serve as a useful guide. Justification 4. The description of the revolution in military affairs is neither definitive nor conclusive. The discussion is intended primarily to stimulate thinking in unique and more meaningful ways about how warfare in the twenty-first century may be fundamentally different than it is today and, of equal importance, evaluating what we should be doing now to prepare ourselves for that eventuality. 5. A number of changes must occur if any military is going to compete successfully on the battlefields of the future. There must be a change in outlook i.e. change in the way about preparing for the future. The military must nurture an attitude that supports free thinking and accepts honest mistakes, encourages experimentation, rewards risk takers, and makes provisions for starting over. As an organization, the military must break out of the box, consider alternative futures, think the unthinkable and let go of the conventional modes of operation. Statement of Objectives 6. While all concepts proposed by RMA analysts may be relevant, the issue needs deliberation in a more professional manner. That includes even the US by their own admission. The understanding of the various ramifications of RMA by the strategy planners as well as military officers would lead to certain questions: (a) What does RMA mean in the Indian context and what are its practical implications? (b) With RMA powered by the recent explosion in IT and keeping in mind our strength in this field how far ahead can we go and achieve the much-touted concepts of RMA? (c) What national posture do we need to adopt how should our national doctrine be formulated on RMA to include the three services, bureaucrats and other agencies responsible for national security? (d) Is reorganisation of the armed forces essential so as to respond and adapt to the organisational challenge posed by the emergence of Information Technology? Would it really meet the desired effect of flattening the organisation and shortening the various channels of command? (e) What should the pace of conduct of customised training for the Indian Armed Forces in the field of information warfare and operations be? Scope 7. The scope of this dissertation shall be limited to the impact of IT on RMA and changes required in view of the variance in views regarding RMA. The various implications on the Indian Armed Forces especially the army shall be analysed in detail to include various imperatives in the strategic, operational, tactical, administrative, organisational and training realms. Hypothesis 8. The present ongoing RMA has been ushered in by Information Technology. However there are varied views of analysists regarding the changes that would be necessitated for effectively embracing this RMA. This coupled with fixed mindsets has led to problems in effectively embracing the current RMA. In analyzing the changes required in the Indian context lessons can be drawn from the processes employed by the US Army, the first force to take steps in this direction. Limitations of the Research 9. An in-depth research on the subject would need face-to-face interaction with the various authorities in charge of national security i.e. the Armed Forces, bureaucrats, police, paramilitary and intelligence agencies. Owing to constraints limited information has been gained through seminars and discussions. Compulsions of confidentiality have also limited the depth of research. Methods of Data Collection 10. Most of the material has been collected primarily through secondary sources, i.e. various books, periodicals and magazines from the DSSC Library. Tertiary sources like various journals and reviews have also been referred to. Bibliography is attached as appendix. The other major source has been the Internet with the sites accessed listed at the end of bibliography. Organisation of the Dissertation 11. This study has been organised into a number of chapters as under:- (a) Chapter I Introduction. In Chapter I, the importance of understanding the various connotations of RMA has been brought out. (b) Chapter II Methodology. It covers the Statement of the Problem, Scope and Methodology of carrying out research for the dissertation. (c) Chapter III Current RMA Its Impact. This chapter covers the facets on which the current RMA is premised. (d) Chapter IV An Overview of Enablers Required for Initiating/ Implementing RMA. This chapter covers the imperatives for implementing RMA. (e) Chapter V Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Organisational Structure. (f) Chapter V I- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Technological, Tactical Doctrinal Aspects. (g) Chapter VII- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Training Aspects. (h) Chapter VIII- Case Study on Implementation of Current RMA by US. (j) Chapter IX- Relevance to India. (k) Chapter X- Conclusion (l) Bibliography. CHAPTER III CURRENT RMA ITS IMPACT 1. The current RMA includes the new tools and processes of waging war like Information Warfare (IW), Network Centric Warfare (NCW), Integrated Command and Control (C4ISR), System of Systems, all powered by IT[8]. The status of information has been raised from being raw material for intelligence to a level where it is now accepted as a tool, or even a new medium for war fighting. Information superiority has led to attainment of decision superiority. The lethality of information power is like any other power. Op Iraqi Freedom launched on 19 March 2003 was a major success essentially due to receipt of information in a short time frame. Establishing information dominance over ones adversary will become a major focus of the operational art[9] in the future. 2. The United States has led and maintains a significant advantage in the development of information- based technologies. This advantage is well grounded in U.S. military capabilities[10]. The roots of the U.S. militarys information-based RMA have been decades in the making. As information-based technologies and capabilities continue to mature, they have become much less expensive, and by their very nature, can be rapidly incorporated by other military forces to enhance their capabilities. 3. Information superiority consists of the integration of offensive and defensive information operations. Improved intelligence collection and assessment, as well as modern information processing and command and control capabilities, are at the heart of the current RMA[11]. With such enhanced capabilities nations will be able to respond rapidly to any conflict. Forces will achieve a state of information superiority, in near real-time, which will be pervasive across the full spectrum of military operations, enabling the force commander to dominate any situation. Velocity of battles would be speeded up causing a collapse of enemys command and control structures causing a rout essentially due to shortening of own OODA loop[12]. 4. The capabilities of the present RMA have yielded transformation of weapon systems, military organizations and operations through the integration of Information Technologies. When information technologies are integrated into a coherent system that includes modern weapon systems operated by highly trained personnel, they provide force multipliers to military formations[13], allowing them to perform more complex manoeuvres, to fire accurately at longer range and to experience a higher degree of situational awareness compared to their opponents. Information warfare can be anything from striking headquarters or communications systems with conventional weapons, hacking computer systems, conducting propaganda and psychological operations, or even to committing atrocities to instill panic in the enemys population. Dynamics of the Current RMA. 5. The current RMA is driven by three primary factors[14] i.e. rapid technological advance compelling a shift from the Industrial Age to the Information Age, the end of the Cold War and a decline in defence budgets. The transition is forcing a change in the way the military services are organized, how they are supplied, how they procure weapons and how they are managed, and, most importantly, how they think and fight. The extent to which the U S Armed Forces have accepted these changes, however, has been remarkable, particularly given that the draw downs, relocations, reorganizations and other fundamental alterations to the way they operate began immediately following a victory of immense proportions in the Gulf War; a victory which confirmed the tremendous progress made in rebuilding the services, especially the Army, after the Vietnam War. The Army is not only restructuring as it downsizes, it also is changing the very way it thinks about war. 6. The development of computers, satellites, and imagery has been occurring at an astounding rate, and there is no indication that this will slow down in the foreseeable future. The inference is that the future military will expand the ability to collect, evaluate and disseminate information relevant to the battlefield at a rate far greater than now. According to Libicki, future precision strike capabilities will mean that, to be seen on the battlefield is to be killed†. 7. Gen Shalikashral of the US Army realising the current RMAs importance gave the concept of â€Å"Joint Force 2010†[15]. This concept is basically aimed at giving a frame work for the application of RMA by US forces by 2010 to achieve â€Å"Full Spectrum Dominance† or total dominance. This concept is based on four pillars:- (a) Dominant Manoeuvre. It implies an operation from various dispersed points all focusing on one target. Dominating manoeuvre will deploy the right forces at the right time and place to cause the enemys psychological collapse and complete capitulation. (b) Precision Engagement. This means the engagement of the target with extreme precision by PGMs from land or sea platforms. For this accurate data collection about the target is very important to make the engagement effective. (c) Full Dimensional Protection. This is the ability to protect the forces including plans from any damage. This enhances the scope of what has to be protected. (d) Focussed Logistics. It means reducing the logistic load to only the essential requirement in shortest possible time, at the fastest speed and in the correct quantity. The RMA also enables to calculate precisely what is required, how much is required and where required. 8. The current rate of change suggests that state of the art in any technological context will be an extremely short-lived phenomenon[16], particularly with respect to the technologies that were key to the success of Desert Storm including space systems, telecommunications systems, computer architectures, global information distribution networks, and navigation systems. Future revolutions will occur much more rapidly, offering far less time for adaptation to new methods of warfare. The growing imperative in the business world for rapid response to changing conditions in order to survive in an intensely competitive environment is surely instructive for military affairs. Corporations repeatedly have to make major changes in strategy to accommodate the full implications of technologies, which have already existed many years. 9. Exploiting the Information Age. The armed forces must develop the essential competences in personnel to exploit new technologies and systems to the full and to ensure that leaders have the right skills to deliver and integrate information projects successfully. To help meet these requirements, there is a need to develop information age skills for everyone joining the armed forces. Efforts should also be made to increase opportunities [17] for personnel already serving besides increasing IT awareness training during initial training. 10. Many analysts agree on one important fact that the current revolution in military affairs seems to have at least two stages[18]. In the drive to limit military casualties, stand-off platforms, stealth, precision, information dominance, and missile defence are the first stage. The second may be robotics, nonlethality, pyschotechnology, and elaborate cyber defence. The revolution in military affairs may see the transition from concern with centres of gravity to a less mechanistic and more sophisticated notion of interlinked systems. 11. The armed forces no longer have to request scientists to develop a specific technology for possible military use. Quite likely, it will be the scientists who would be chasing military planners prodding them to use technologies that can now be converted to weapons much quicker than before through computer simulation, cutting development and production cycles dramatically[19]. CHAPTER IV An Overview of Enablers Required for INITIATING/ Implementing RMA 1. An analysis gives rise to the three dimensions of the RMA required for a nation to effectively implement it. First is the conscious decision on the part of a state to acquire all or portions of what might be termed an RMA complex. Second is the ability to acquire or develop the systems that constitute RMA-type technologies. Last, and perhaps most important, is the ability, organizationally and operationally, to adapt technologies in ways that bring into being the full military potential of an RMA. 2. Even though the revolution in military affairs has attracted some brilliant thinkers, systematic strategic discourse remains rare. Except for Andrew Krepinevich[20] and Jeffrey Cooper, few writers have attempted to place the current RMA in its broader theoretic and historic context. Moreover, the fact of change may be most dramatically manifested in combat, but historically the most profound RMAs are peacetime phenomena. Militaries are driven to innovate during peacetime by the need to make more efficient use of shrinking resources, by reacting to major changes in the security environment[21]. 3. Both the Tofflers, who identify only two historical military revolutions, and Krepinevich, who distinguishes ten since the 14th century, are suggestive of implementing RMA through major and minor revolutions in military affairs as under:- (a) Minor Revolutions. Minor revolutions in military affairs tend to be initiated by individual technological or social changes, occur in relatively short periods (less than a decade), and have their greatest direct impact on the battlefield. Minor revolutions in military affairs can be deliberately shaped and controlled. A minor revolution in military affairs driven by military applications of silicon-chip technology is already underway and the next minor revolution will be driven by robotics and psycho technology. (b) Major Revolutions[22]. Major revolutions in military affairs are the result of combined multiple technological, economic, social, cultural and/or military changes, usually occur over relatively long periods (greater that a decade), and have direct impact on strategy. Major revolutions cannot be deliberately shaped and controlled. The world is potentially at the beginning of one. 4. Enablers for revolutions in military affairs appear to follow a cyclical pattern with initial stasis followed by initiation, critical mass, consolidation, response, and return to stasis. Revolutions in military affairs can be initiated by one breakthrough power or by a group. In the modern security system, revolutions in military affairs are usually inspired by outright defeat or by a perception of inferiority or decline versus a peer or niche opponent. Revolutions in military affairs have a point of critical mass when changes in concepts, organizations, and technology meld. Once recognized, every revolutionary breakthrough generates responses. Responses to revolutions in military affairs can be symmetric or asymmetric; asymmetric responses may be more difficult to counter. 5. The greatest advantage for the breakthrough power lies in the period immediately following critical mass; thus, there may be a temptation to initiate conflict before responses can be effective. All revolutions in military affairs have a culminating point [23], at which innovation and change slow or stop, determined by the interaction between the revolutionary breakthrough and the responses, followed by a consolidation phase This may occur when leaders become satisfied with the military balance and will no longer risk radical change. It may also occur when costs of change are thought to outweigh the benefits of further expenditure. During the consolidation phase, superior training and leadership may be the only ways to achieve superior relative combat effectiveness against symmetric responses. 6. At times, a single state can initiate revolution by recognizing how to effectively combine various evolutionary developments, new ideas, and technology. Napoleonic France and the Mongols of Genghis Khan were examples of single state breakthroughs. At other times, there can be a collective breakthrough as when the European powers of the mid-19th to early 20th centuries combined industrialization, railroads, improved metallurgy and explosives, the telegraph, barbed wire, concrete, improved methods of government funding, nationalism, breech loading, rifled artillery and small arms, steam-driven, armoured ships, internal combustion engines, radio, increased literacy and public health, improved explosives, and the machine gun. 7. Always, though, the essence of the revolution is not the invention of new technology, but discovery of innovative ways to organize, operate, and employ new technology. Revolutions in military affairs begin when the potential latent in technological, conceptual, political, economic, social, and organizational changes that have occurred or are occurring is recognized and converted to augment combat effectiveness. In pre-modern, heterogeneous security systems, revolution was often initiated by states outside the system or on its periphery. Sometimes their advantage accrued from superior morale, training, organization, leadership, strategy, or tactics. 8. In the modern, communications-intensive security system, revolutions in military affairs have most frequently been initiated by a state within the system[24]. This is because fundamental change of any kind is difficult, even frightening; those who unleash revolution never know exactly where it will take them. Uncertainty as to the eventual outcome means that political and military leaders satisfied with their states security situation will seldom run the risks of revolution. Usually, then, only real or imagined danger can provide the spark. 9. Initiation of a revolution requires revolutionaries. RMAs are led by armed forces that tolerate and, at the appropriate time, empower visionaries. The decision to do this is a vital juncture in military revolutions. In the past, only a peer competitor could offer enough of a threat to empower military visionaries and dispel the miasma of inertia and petrified thinking. This may be changing. The military role in implementing innovative ideas is crucial. As one observer noted, â€Å"many important wartime technical innovations such as the tank, proximity fuse, and microwave radar, and organizational innovations such as new doctrines for submarine warfare and strategic targeting functions for American bombers, were pursued at the initiative of military officers or with their vigorous support.† What may be key to â€Å"winning the innovation battle† is a professional military climate, which fosters thinking in unconstrained fashion about future war. The other critical re quirement is the ability and willingness of relatively junior officers who are now out in the field and fleet to think about the future. They are likely to be in closer touch with new and emerging technologies, which have potential military application. As operators, they are aware of the operational and organizational problems that they must deal with daily and hence are prime clients for possible solutions[25]. Further, an offensive concept is vital for the implementation of RMA. 10. The most successful revolutionary states turn military advantage into economic and political dominance, but the transition is difficult. Being the first to understand or implement a RMA does not guarantee even military victory. A breakthrough state or coalition which clearly understands the RMA but which fails to develop an appropriate, balanced, strategy can-and usually will-lose to a state or coalition, which lags in understanding but possesses superior strategic prowess[26]. History is littered with breakthrough military states which ultimately failed, whether those of Genghis Khan, Napoleon Bonaparte, or Imperial and Nazi Germany. 11. The course of the current RMA is not preordained. Key policy decisions made now will both affect the pace of revolution and the shape of the 21st century force that emerges from it. Perhaps the most fundamental choice of all concerns the enthusiasm with which developed nations should pursue the current minor RMA and the extent to which it should shape force development. Often this is not even considered due to the traditional approach to technology. Technology is respected, almost deified. There are sound historical reasons for this. During its formative period, many nations suffered from chronic shortages of skilled labour, thus forcing reliance on labour-saving technology. Eli Whitney, Robert Fulton, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and thousands of other entrepreneurs and inventors harnessed technology in the name of efficiency. Reflecting this legacy, many nations have often evinced an unreflective trust in the ultimate benefit of technology. However, a reasonable case can be made that too vigorous pursuit of the current minor RMA is undesirable or dangerous, that the costs and risks outweigh the expected benefits. Budget constraints and the changing nature of global presence provide the broad context within which redesign of any military will unfold. However, it is to the technological factor, in the present era that basic judgments about force structure changes are attributed to[27]. 12. The utility of the current RMA[28], with its stress on precision, standoff strikes, falls off dramatically toward the poles of the military/technology spectrum. Opponents at the low end of the spectrum tend to operate in widely dispersed fashion and emit a limited electronic signature, thus complicating targeting. Their organization is often cellular, making decapitation difficult. If they are insurgents, they intermingle with the population. It is also important for successful implementation of RMA, the organizational enabler i.e. all important commanders, must be ingrained in military doctrine and practice failing which the RMA is not guaranteed to take hold throughout todays defense organizations. Second, unless the rational basis for the strategy is translated into an overarching vision, the RMA faces obstacles in the form of powerful, change-resistant bureaucratic forces[29]. 13. Enablers for RMA [30] need to be constantly viewed under the effect of the following:- (a) The political context. This is the breeding ground of war, and hence warfare. (b) The strategic context. The strategic context expresses the relationship between political demand and military supply, keyed to the particular tasks specific to a conflict. (c) The social-cultural context. Social-cultural trends are likely to prove more revealing at an early stage of the prospects for revolutionary change in warfare than missile tests, defense contracts, military maneuvers, or even, possibly, and some limited demonstration of a novel prowess in combat. (d) The economic context. Though wars are rarely waged for economic reasons, warfare is economic behaviour, interalia, just as it is, and has to be, logistical behaviour also. (e) The technological context. Warfare always has a technological context, but that context is not always the principal fuel for revolutionary change. (f) The geographical context. Military revolution keyed to the emerging exploitation of a new geographical environment has beckoned both the visionary theorist and the bold military professional. Imperatives for Effective Implementation of RMA[31] 14. Certain desirable features for implementation of RMA are:- (a) Design of a RMA force structure that would effectively use technology. (b) Technological development